“He was compelled to start negotiations, make peace, and suffer the humiliation of becoming vassal to the Turkish sultan.”

“The manor's vassals owed first fruits and a tithe to the parish church.”

“The most remarkable external political documents are numerous state treaties, sometimes between equals but more often covenants specifying protectorate or vassaldom status for subordinate states on the fringes of the kingdom.”

“At times independent, at other times reduced to vassaldom, the first three states were centred on rivers Sogdiana around the Zeravshan and Kashkadarya, Fergana on the lower Syr Darya, and Chorasmia on the Amu Darya's basin.”

“In some cases a dominating branch replaced the major lineage, and in others a powerful minister formed a strong vassaldom and usurped the authority of the legitimate ruler.”

“He understood the practice of European vassalage and the importance attached to an oath taken to an lord.”

“Lords based their authority over other freeholders on two types of vassalage.”

“Before then personal vassalage was common, but a considerable proportion of peasants were slaves.”

“And his majesty received them kindly and benignantly, and ordered that they should be treated like his other subjects and vassals.”

“Lords who unjustly dispossess their vassals can expect punishment from a higher authority.”

“But in 1086 William forced all his vassals to swear service directly to him for their fiefs.”